“Employee Recognition in Relation to Motivation Theories”

Abstract Employee motivation is a topic widely researched noting numerous motivational theories and concepts. Similarly there has been much discussion on the many factors that influence an employee’s level of motivation. Those factors include monetary rewards, employee involvement, training development, employee recognition programs, etc. This paper will discuss review motivational theories developed based on the concept of â€Å"needs† and other motivational philosophies, as well as discuss the correlation between the motivational theories and employee recognition. Introduction The term â€Å"motivation†, which is defined using various terminologies, is often used to describe different types of behavior. Motivation is the â€Å"internal state or the†¦show more content†¦In this positive view, McGregor identifies that employees regard work as a natural activity. (Robbins, 2005) This premise led to the belief that motivation occurs due to an individuals’ drive to satisfy their needs. McGregor identified those managers of Theory Y type employees believed that people inherently like to work. A result of this belief the manager pushes more responsibility on the employee in an attempt shape employee’s goals to align with the organization. Following the steps of Maslow and McGregor, Frederick Herzberg developed a motivational theory based on the â€Å"needs† concept. Trying to answer the question â€Å"what do people want from work†, he developed the â€Å"Two Factor† theory. (Robbins, 2005) Based up on his studies he believed that satisfaction and dissatisfaction at work arose from different factors, and was not simply opposing reactions. Hygiene needs are defined as company policy, work conditions, relationship with supervisor, and salary by Herzberg. He believed that people strive to achieve hygiene needs because without them they are unhappy, but once satisfied the effect will wear off. End result or meaning is that satisfaction is temporary. This factor indicates that people are not motivated by addressing these hygiene needs, fulfillment just appeases the individual. Herzberg’s second factor is identifying â€Å"motivators†, suggesting that individuals areShow MoreRelatedOrganisational Behavioural Theories Essay1425 Words   |  6 Pages Organisational Behavioural Theories Organisational theory is the idea and principle about how the work could be done by investigating through different perceptive. Throughout the last century, scholars, psychologists and behaviour scientists have contributed in developing of new theories for the organisations to achieve more by allocating their workers to make more productive and most of those theories did well in old times. But at the turn of the next century, thing haveRead MoreFrederick Herzbergs Theory Of Motivation And Employee Dissatisfaction959 Words   |  4 PagesTwo-Factor Theory This theory is described as the most influential theory relevant to work redesign, and it has prompted a great deal of research and inspired several successful change projects involving the redesign of work (Hackman, 1976). Frederick Herzberg’s theory of motivation is based on two factors; hygiene factors and motivators (Gulati at el., 2014). Herzberg discovered that employees tended to describe satisfying experiences in terms motivators and included things like achievement,Read MoreTypes of Motivation1118 Words   |  5 PagesMotivation is defined as the accumulation of different process which influence and direct our behavior to achieve a goal (Negussie, 2012). According to Deci, there are two broad classes of motivation, which are intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. 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Determining what motivates each individual is notRead MoreMotivation of Workers Essay1061 Words   |  5 PagesMotivation of Workers Having a motivated workforce is vital for most businesses, since it can lead to higher rates of productivity, better quality output, and low rates of absenteeism and labour turnover. The main factors which affect the motivation of workers are pay levels, job security, promotional prospects, being given responsibilities, working conditions, fringe benefits, participation in decision-making and working in a team. Motivational Theories Read MoreEmployee Retention Practices And Motivation Theories865 Words   |  4 PagesWeek 3 reading was related to motivation theories and explained the employee motivation affects on employee retention. Reading, examines how developing and implementing employee retention practices create a competitive advantage. This reading provides a connection between the effective employee retention practices and motivation theories as well as how these efforts serve as a strategy to increasing organizational performance. Also, making the case for financial importance in maintaining suchRead MoreEmployee Satisfaction Variables Essay1339 Words   |  6 PagesEmployee Satisfaction Variables Employee Satisfaction: Employee satisfaction is considered to be a key indicator of productivity and customer satisfaction. Employee satisfaction is a key to the success of the organization. The Companys ability to fulfill the physical, emotional, and psychological needs of its employees is employee satisfaction. Satisfaction: Satisfaction is the psychological state that indicates how a person feels about his or her situation, based on an evaluation ofRead MoreAn Article The Fortune 100 And Their Fitness And Wellness Programs1272 Words   |  6 Pagesgender equality, good and flexible work organization permitting better reconciliation of working and personal life, lifelong learning, health and safety at work, employee involvement and diversity in working life.† (2012) . In an article The Fortune 100 and their Fitness and Wellness Programs, we can find the examples of such managerial attitude. For instance, Walmart provides its 1.1 million associates and family members with health care plans with access to affordable, comprehensive medical coverage

Sociology and Air Force Essay - 1046 Words

SOCIO-AUTOBIOGRAPHY CHRISTOPHER PERSING February 9, 2014 PROFESSOR J. JOHNSON The older and more grounded I become in the middle age phase of my life, the more aware I am of the person I have become and how the choices made both myself and my family have formed what is known as â€Å"My Life†. My family traditions, upbringing and values have influenced my biological, cultural views and values allowing me to formulate a life, principles, and a family similar in some aspects to my family, who raised me, while other aspects are astoundingly different. With my life and career goals very different from that of my parents’ lives and their expectations these influences by class, culture, and ethical teachings are†¦show more content†¦To further monopolize more of my mothers’ time, she felt it necessary to play her maternal roll and had a fifth child nine years later. (TCO 1, 2, 3, 4,5) Growing older through my adolescent and teen years and trying to escape the shadows of three older brothers and a younger sister, I forged the wrong path academically, while looking for acceptance from peers which usually resulted with hanging with the wrong crowd. I fortunately developed good work ethic and habits because my father insisted we all work during the summer months to minimize the possibility of, kids being kids, and me getting into trouble. Upon graduating high school, by the skin of my teeth, I entered the Air Force. The Air Force hierarchy and structure reinforced and further instilled society’s views of conformity through rules and regulations. Protocols such as, the â€Å"Military Chain of Command†, allowed me to mature and changed my very sheltered views of society altering my perspective of society both national and globally. (TCO 3,4,5,6) My new travels, endeavors and encounters, throughout the world, during my military years opened my eyes to the gender, religious and racial discrimination people encounter. These views and encounters I experienced further engrained in me that if I wanted more out of life for myself, or for that matter my family later in life, I would have to have my own business. In doing this it, would afford me the ability to prosper in a capitalistic society andShow MoreRelatedSociology and the Education System in America Essay1154 Words   |  5 Pages The definition of Sociology is that it is the study of human societies through the synthesis of theoretical analysis and controlled research, focusing on the social patterns and forces that influence humans. The study of sociology is the issues, concepts, investigations, and more importantly, the systematic study of relationships among people. 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Marketing Consumer Behaviour Of Organization - Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss about the Marketing Consumer Behaviour Of Organization. Answer: Introduction Consumer behaviour is a vital aspect of marketing and needs to be understood in the broader terms. It is the study regarding approaches or factors guiding decision making in the target customer segment. It is necessary to understand the driving factors behind particular customer choices over others. This helps in the development of suitable action strategy for pitching a product right. The analysis of the consumer behaviour not only helps in analysing the past but also helps on predicting the future. The factors influencing customer choices could be divided into a number of components such as- geographic, demographic, psychological and behavioural. In the current report we have tried to relate the importance of consumer behaviour within the business prospects. For the discussion of the report we have taken into consideration Square and compass which is a Melbourne based coffee and food restaurant ("Square Compass", 2018). Consumer behaviour The decisions and actions which influence the purchasing behaviour of a target customer base is known as consumer behaviour. Most of the selection process is backed by emotions and reasoning. Some of the most common factors influencing consumer choices and decision making are economic conditions, personal preferences, opinions of peers. Economic condition serves as a guiding factor in dictating consumer choices. As commented by Chung et al. ( 2017), the capacity of making purchases is often restricted by poor or limited economy. Therefore, indulging in an espresso which costs anywhere between 4-5 dollars may not be a convenient option where the family is looking out for a cheap grocery. As argued by Kerins et al. (2017), personal preferences often govern the customer choices and behaviour while choosing over a range of products and services. For example, a person simply love espresso over simple black coffee and may choose the same irrespective of the prices. As argued by Astuti Hanan (2016), the opinions of the peers are also important in choosing particular products or services. As commented by Chung et al. (2017), negative publicity about brand or its services can also prevent the maximum sales of the services. Additionally, the dependency on social media for collecting reviews about products and services provides a much wide forum for the consumers; where they are exposed to the opinions of others which further goes into making the purchase plan. There are a number of theories guiding consumer behaviour such as theory of reasoned action; Engel, kollet, Blackwell (EKB) model; Hawkins stern impulse buying behaviour. The theory of reasoned action states that the customer will only plan to indulge in particular products and services when they can expect a positive outcome out of it. As commented by Yeboah Owusu-Prempeh (2017), the consumers are the rational actors who choose to acts in their best interests. However, as argued by Alphonce, Alfnes Sharma (2014), from the time of decision making to the actual purchase time the consumer have the propensity to change their mind about using specific purchases. The EKB model further expands the theory of reasoned action which explains the selective approach of the customers while making the purchases. The first step is where the customer collects sufficient data about particular services before processing of the information. As commented by Lo, Wu, Law Au (2014), the costumers move into decision making phase based on rationale. The decision making is also influenced by process variables including the after satisfaction rate of the customers after making the purchase. With respect to the current scenario the theory of impulse buying can be highlighted. As commented by Gelbric, Roschk Gafeeva (2016), impulse purchases are driven by external stimulus and have no relation with traditional aspects of decision making. For example placing an order for medium sized pizzas worth rupees 199 at dominos a taco Mexicana is offered free which is quite an indulging deal. Additionally, offering of attractive coupons, discounts such as cashback on every purchase at a food court are some of the marketing gimmick that can appeal to the impulses of individual customers. Importance of consumer behaviour for organizations The marketers can use the theory in their favour where they can associate a purchase with a specific and positive outcome. The theory of reasoned action also helps the marketers in understanding that longer the gap between the initial desire and making the actual purchase the more are the chances of losing the customer (Kerins et al., 2017). With respect to the EKB model the marketers need to provide the customers with sufficient information regarding the products. This helps in keeping the products under consideration for purchase. For example a restaurant in order to attract maximum number of customers would need to invest in marketing gimmicks and advertisements. Here, the sumptuous meals prepared by the restaurant can be pitched to the customers based upon the feel and culture of the specific region. This is help in attracting maximum number of customers to the restaurant time and again. The consumer behaviour is highly important with respect to an organization. The focus on consumer help in developing the business practices. As commented by Aday Yener (2014), consumer behaviour is highly complex and dynamic in nature. During the process of buying a product or selecting services the consumer go through a number of psychological processes in their mind which dictate their actual purchase behaviour. As argued by Gelbrich, Roschk, Gafeeva (2016), the personality traits are also imperative in guiding the decision making approaches. The pragmatic people would purchase what is useful and necessary. With respect to a restaurant selling food one can say that the pragmatic people will choose a basic and healthy meal than a luxurious and sumptuous meal. An aesthetically inclined customer will be drawn towards the look of the product than its contents. However as argued by Wikstrm, , Williams, Verghese Clune (2014), it is difficult to convince the intellectually inclined cus tomers to buy out a certain product. As they mostly want to know regarding the benefits of the product or collect much knowledge regarding the positive reviews associated associated with the product before they could make the purchase. A huge part of their mentality is affected by peer responses. Therefore, the organization needs to develop a positive image about itself. Recent studies have established that the consumer takes less than 20 minutes time in deciding about the products or services that they want to buy (Gelbric, Roschk Gafeeva, 2016). Therefore, the marketers need to be selective as well as line up maximum diversity in promoting their services. Additionally, 58% of the purchases are unplanned which means that maximum time the customers are buying more out of impulses than out of needs (Aday Yener, 2014). Therefore, understanding the decision making approaches of the customer will help in maximization of the sale and the profit margins. Consumer profile The profile of a customer helps in describing the target customer segments categorically so that they can be grouped for advertising and marketing purposes. The services and products can be tailor made to satisfy individual needs and demands. As commented by Ye, Cronin Peloza (2015), before pitching of the products it is necessary to design suitable customer profile. The consumers of the square and compass restaurant have been identified based on a number of features such as preference, lifestyle, stage of life, attribute and traits. The customer profile can be further divided into primary and secondary segments. Primary segment The primary segment refers to the target market from where majority of the revenue from sales could be extracted. It focuses on marketing efforts where maximum amount of returns could be obtained. Geographic The primary target customer for the square and compass restaurant are the residents of East Melbourne Demographic They are mostly customers within age group of 18-30. Psychographic An overall positive opinion about the square and compass restaurant attracts the maximum number of customers. Additionally, the contemporary feel of the place attracts huge number of youth customers Behavioural The customers mostly within the young age group have been seen to be impulsive buyers and are aesthetic buyers who choose a product over their looks and feel than health benefits or nutritional value. Table 1: Primary segment target customers (Source: author) Figure 1: primary customer segment (Source Lo, Wu,Law, R Au, 2014) Analysis: The residents of the East Melbourne form the primary market consumers which could be attributed to feasibility of location ("Square Compass", 2018). The suitable and convenient location of the square and compass restaurant on the Clarendon Street makes it one of the most visited restaurants. Additionally, the place is mostly visited by the youth owing to its contemporary feel and look. The open spaces and the plenty of activities available make it one of the favourite hangout places for the youth. The aesthetic feel of the place also attracts huge number of target customer. The segmentation is further based upon the four Ps of marketing which are product, price, place and promotion. The promotions of the product, the prices as well as the location are some of the major contributors (Namkung Jang, 2017). Since the customer profile hitting the square and compass restaurant are mostly youths or young adults, price as well as place of the business outlet are some of the governing facto rs (Kang, Jun Arendt, 2015). Secondary segment Geographic The secondary target market is located within greater Melbourne and adjacent areas. Demographic They are mostly customers within the age group of 33-65. Psychographic Opinion of peers or reviews collected from social media sites influence the buying behaviour of the secondary target customer base. Behavioural The manner of making choices is influenced by the peer opinions. The nature of selection is guided by intellectual abilities where the health and nutritional aspects are taken into consideration before making a purchase. Table 2: secondary segment target customers (Source : author) Figure 2 : market segmentation (Source : Alphonce, R., Alfnes, F., Sharma, 2014) Analysis: The secondary target market consists of the ones residing in greater Melbourne and adjacent areas. These customers fall within the age group of 33-65 and mostly hit the place based upon the reviews and opinions of their peers and the collective reviews over the social media sites ("Square Compass", 2018). Since the customers fall within the middle age group they apply intellectual abilities in making the purchase decisions (Oliver, 2014). These are based upon collective reviews of peers and the amount of positive publicity done regarding the square and compass restaurant. Therefore, the promotional aspects form a very important component of business growth and profitability. Therefore, the management at the square and compass restaurant need to focus upon the marketing gimmicks where promotion of the sumptuous menu choices offered by the restaurant can be done over apps such as Zomato. Additionally, a link to the menu of the restaurant has also been pasted over their facebook and in stagram pages. Issue identification Some of the issues which have been found with respect to the square and compass restaurant situated in Melbourne are threats from similar market players in a highly competitive market. Additionally, labour and shortage in the number of international chefs are affecting the productivity of the Australian restaurants at large scale (Sethna Blythe, 2016). The square and compass restaurant stands at no exception. One of the dominant issues which are faced by the square and compass restaurant apart from cut-throat competition and labour shortage is the lack of adequate finances. In the lack of finances managing the day-to day operations of the restaurant becomes difficult (Lehman, Kovcs Carroll, 2014). Additionally, the entry of new restaurateurs in the emerging market scenario puts excessive pressure on the existing ones. The new entrants could come out with marketing gimmicks which may affect important parameters such as customer loyalty. Conclusion The square and compass restaurant constantly needs to renew its services and policies to attract the maximum number of customer base. Additionally, focusing upon the consumer buyer behaviour helps in improving the business sense and ethics. This further helps in expanding the future customer profile. Moreover, economy, personal preferences, opinions of the peers are further instrumental in affecting the customer buying behaviour and approaches. In addition the geographic, demographic, psychologic and behavioural aspects further govern the decision making. Additionally, promotions and strategic planning are some of the other aspects which can help in expanding the target market based upon customer preferences. References Aday, M. S., Yener, U. (2014). Understanding the buying behaviour of young consumers regarding packaging attributes and labels.International journal of consumer studies,38(4), 385-393. DOI: 10.1111/ijcs.12105 Alphonce, R., Alfnes, F., Sharma, A. (2014). Consumer vs. citizen willingness to pay for restaurant food safety.Food Policy,49, 160-166. Retreived from : https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2014.06.009 Astuti, S., Hanan, H. (2016). The Behaviour of Consumer Society in Consuming Food at Restaurants and Cafes.Journal of ASIAN Behavioural Studies,1(1), 71-79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21834/jabs.v1i1.173 Chung, N., Chung, N., Song, H. G., Song, H. G., Lee, H., Lee, H. (2017). Consumers impulsive buying behavior of restaurant products in social commerce.International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,29(2), 709-731. Retreived from : https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/IJCHM-10-2015-0608 Gelbrich, K., Roschk, H., Gafeeva, R. (2016). A Cross-National Observation of Counter-Cultural Consumer Behaviour.Marketing ZFP,38(3), 150-162. DOI: 10.15358/0344-1369-2016-3-150 Kang, J., Jun, J., Arendt, S. W. (2015). Understanding customers healthy food choices at casual dining restaurants: Using the ValueAttitudeBehavior model.International Journal of Hospitality Management,48, 12-21. Retreived from : https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2015.04.005 Kerins, C., Cunningham, K., Finucane, F. M., Gibson, I., Jones, J., Kelly, C. (2017). Effects of an icon-based menu labelling initiative on consumer food choice.Perspectives in public health,137(1), 45-52. Retreived from : https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1757913916640826 Lehman, D. W., Kovcs, B., Carroll, G. R. (2014). Conflicting social codes and organizations: Hygiene and authenticity in consumer evaluations of restaurants. Management Science,60(10), 2602-2617. Retreived from : https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2014.1903 Lo, A., Wu, J., Law, R., Au, N. (2014). Which promotion time frame works best for restaurant group-buying deals?.Tourism Recreation Research,39(2), 203-219. Retreived from : https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2014.11081767 Namkung, Y., Jang, S. (2017). Are consumers willing to pay more for green practices at restaurants?.Journal of Hospitality Tourism Research,41(3), 329-356. Retreived from : https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1096348014525632?journalCode=jhtd Oliver, R. L. (2014).Satisfaction: A behavioral perspective on the consumer. Abingdon: Routledge, pp.225-351. Retreived from : https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=enlr=id=TzrfBQAAQBAJoi=fndpg=PP1dq=Oliver,+R.+L.+(2014).+Satisfaction:+A+behavioral+perspective+on+the+consumer.++Routledge.ots=LpMAhOReSvsig=c9QrUvHKwx3ZXDvGlvNOhlVXDyY#v=onepageqf=false Sethna, Z., Blythe, J. (2016).Consumer behaviour. London:Sage, pp. 127-236. Retreived from : https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=enlr=id=xcvBDAAAQBAJoi=fndpg=PP1dq=Sethna,+Z.,+%26+Blythe,+J.+(2016).+Consumer+behaviour.+Sage.ots=xQlZDbJuXfsig=4IHOTk7h73kFZB1kxCM2nKp4bRo#v=onepageq=Sethna%2C%20Z.%2C%20%26%20Blythe%2C%20J.%20(2016).%20Consumer%20behaviour.%20Sage.f=false Squareandcompass.com.au. Retrieved 8 January 2018, from https://squareandcompass.com.au/ Wikstrm, F., Williams, H., Verghese, K., Clune, S. (2014). The influence of packaging attributes on consumer behaviour in food-packaging life cycle assessment studies-a neglected topic.Journal of Cleaner Production,73, 100-108. Retreived from : https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.10.042 Ye, C., Cronin, J. J., Peloza, J. (2015). The role of corporate social responsibility in consumer evaluation of nutrition information disclosure by retail restaurants.Journal of Business Ethics,130(2), 313-326. Retreived from : https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10551-014-2230-8 Yeboah, A., Owusu-Prempeh, V. (2017). Exploring the Consumer Impulse Buying Behaviour from a Range of Consumer and Product Related Factors.International Journal of Marketing Studies,9(2), 146. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5539/ijms.v9n2p146Square Compass. (2018).

The origins of English Drama Essay Example

The origins of English Drama Essay The Origins of Drama: an Introduction The word drama comes from the Greek meaning to act, do or perform, and It Is In the several subtle and diverse meanings of to perform that drama can be said to have begun. All communities accept that their later drama has roots in prehistory. Anthropologists have shown that primitive societies used (and in certain cases still use) role-playing in teaching the codes and behavior required to live and survive in that society; for example, to teach the skills needed in knowing what and how to hunt, the making and use of weapons and the rules of warfare. Performance could be involved in oral repetition to teach the laws and social customs, while enactment of mythical or historical episodes perpetuates and transmits what is thought important to maintain In the race-memory of the tribe. Most early societies lived by a seasonal cycle, a regular pattern allied to the movements of the sun or moon, and perhaps related to the movement of prey, or to seedtime and harvest, and drama was especially Important In devising rituals to deal with the Inexplicable, the changing seasons, the natural phenomena of night and day, or the waxing and waning of the non. We will write a custom essay sample on The origins of English Drama specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The origins of English Drama specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The origins of English Drama specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Without propitiation with certain symbolic ceremonial safeguards or sacrifices, the sun might not rise again, the crops might fail. All humankind has, and had, concerns with life and death and has evolved ceremonies and rituals to help deal with the perennial questions of where did I come from? and where do I go after death? These were usually answered by some kind of belief in an outside power, an almighty being or beings, to give the hope of an after-life, to avoid extinction at death. Thus the invention of gods happened to provide a liaison between this world and the ext and societal rituals would encompass Joy, hope, and renewal, or death, despair and foreboding. Omens became important and had to be Interpreted by wise men, perhaps Involving Impersonation, and disguise, In punctiliously performed ceremonies to appease or placate the gods. Rules for communal living would gradually be agreed: incest might be banned, but witchcraft allowed within given limits; murder be condoned for some offences but avenged for others. Most societies would include rituals of purification, perhaps for menstruating women or after childbirth, and ordeals for children to undergo in order to attain adulthood and acceptance into full membership of the community. And all this would be taught and learnt through oral tradition, through story-telling and through performances and enactments passed down from generation to generation. All societies seem to have had these ritual traditions in one form or another from which spoken drama often, but not always, emerged. It is these ritual and community roots that later dramatists have drawn on In trying to express humanity concern with life and death In both tragedy and comedy. In the early communities everyone was Involved In the drama f a ceremonial ritual, perhaps with Impersonation and Identification with priestly roles, or as characters depicted in enactments, or simply as celebrants but it was when the occasion became a performance by some in front of others as an entertainment. However since the sixteenth century, the two terms have become synonymous with both words loosely understood as meaning the representation of a story enacted by actors in front of an audience. Most communities have some mention of folk drama derived from oral storytelling becoming a narrative in dialogue, but by its nature oral storytelling is mostly unrecorded, and histories are parse and fragmentary. It is thought that music and dance associated with death and rejuvenation is represented in ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs from around BEECH but little more is known about Egyptian practices. Although Herodotus wrote about an Egyptian temple ceremony involving a mock battle, and implies this was an annual event, nothing is known about any spoken drama. In China music is believed to have existed in BEECH, scribes wrote of rituals and religious worship accompanied by music and dance from BEECH, and of emperors who were reproved for enjoying theatrical performances by actors. However, written classical Chinese poetic drama is only recorded from the sass BCC. In India the beginnings of spoken drama are uncertain but it is also thought to have derived from earlier dramatic dances and mimes related to ancient rituals and seasonal celebrations, and to have appeared about the same time as the Greeks began writing their plays. Some authorities suggest Indian dramatic writings were influenced by the influx of Greek culture after the invasion by Alexander the Great in BEECH. For Greece, and in particular Athens, is credited with the beginnings of performing plays in front of an audience as we understand them today. Greek Drama We have many of the texts of actual plays performed in Greece from around BEECH. Knowledge of them became widespread because European culture was founded on the classical authors of Greece and Rome. From the Renaissance until the twentieth century a formal education in a European school was based on, or at least included, Latin authors such as Virgil and Cicero, and plays by Seneca and Terrace. The Greek texts used included stories from The Iliad and The Odyssey by Homer; and many of the plays first performed centuries before by Aeschylus and Aristotelian, Sophocles and Meander, as well as the writings of philosophers like Plato and Aristotle. The performances of plays in the Greek culture were as part of a religious festival not in the sense of a ritual offering of an art in the form of drama but as a celebration with and for the god. Slowly the drama was becoming theatre with the God as the most important spectator. Usually, but not exclusively the performance was for the god Dionysus, and it is believed the theatre developed from the Dionysian cult- festivals and the seasonal celebrations and rituals for crop sowing and harvesting. Some of the earliest representations of theatrical performance from the 6th century BCC show actors dressed as animals or birds. We know a little of how Dionysus may have been worshipped from Aristotelian play Chariness in which he mocks a peasant familys Dionysian feast. They recite a prayer and then the family walks in the sacrifice, a slave carrying a phallus, the father singing a bawdy phallic song, the wife watching from the house roof. This gives us prayer, a procession, the diathermy (a certain kind of rough lyric verse) and the sacrifice, which may have originally been a man but later became a goat and then fruit or other foodstuff. Occasionally the procession was combined with the symbolic wedding of the wife of a leading citizen to Dionysus in the temple. Dionysus was represented in person at this time as a bearded long-haired mature man with two little horns on his forehead as a sign of unbounded energy. This later became a sign for adultery. The crown of ivy and the burgeoning thirsty (a ritual staff of narthexs or fennel twined with and vine leaves and capped with a pine cone) showed he was not affected by seasonal changes. In procession he was preceded by virgins and followed by Bacchanals dressed as satyrs in goatskins, or in wine-stained garments and with faces smeared with wine dregs. Some of the Bacchanals represented the dead with horrifying death masks and grave loathes. The popular name for the satyrs was traits, which means goat; they sang a tragic or goat song from which eventually came tragedy. Dramatic songs and dances were performed at the sacrificial site, the temple. In parallel with this solemn religious festival there grew up the comic phallic sports, with choruses of young men coming after the official procession, often in their chariots, singing improvised, witty, and probably bawdy, songs. The young men were called cosmos and their songs were called comedies. It is believed that drama developed from narrative songs in the diathermy verse, first even by a single person and later performed by a chorus. At first there was no identification of characters by separate voices but eventually a second voice was introduced and at least part of the sung narrative became dialogue. Thesis is credited with introducing this innovation and is by tradition considered the first actor. He was said to come from Scoria, which had links with the Dionysus legend. Dionysus is supposed to have been friends with Caries the King. Thesis is thought to have started in the provinces with a chorus, traveling with a cart on which he stood o give a solo performance in spoken verse independently of the chorus. The actor could play the hero or the god and the chorus respond as the soldiers or the worshippers or whatever was required by the story. And from this came the style of Greek tragedy with its use of a chorus and first one then two and then three actors playing the single voice parts, and the development of dramatic action. All this came about not solely for entertainment but for a religious festival usually in honor of Dionysus, although it is believed the acting troupes would travel the country and resent the plays for suitable occasions outside the actual festivals. We know there were earlier dramatists whose works have not survived, although some names such as Princess are known, but the first play texts we know of are by Aeschylus who was born in BEECH. Only some seven of Aeschylus plays have survived from what is believed to be a total of around seventy and it is not even certain which of his writings deserves the honor of having been shown first. There is scholarly debate as to whether it was Suppliants (Supplies) or The Persians works is The Roasters which is a complete trilogy presented at a festival for Dionysus n Athens in BEECH In the earliest plays the single voice is subordinated to the chorus and the story is told in the interchanges between him and the chorus, but Aeschylus added a second actor and then the two could address each other without the chorus. We know quite a lot about Aeschylus from an anonymous biography of uncertain date and uncertain sources. But some of the information is confirmed from comments by others. He was certainly honored as a great writer in his lifetime; his plays won the City Dionysian thirteen times, and some of those victories were after his death in BEECH. He said of himself that what he wrote were slices from Homer. He retired to Sicily and was buried at Gel with an epitaph he had composed: Here lies Aeschylus of Athens, son of Euphoria, who died in fertile Gel, and whose prowess the long-haired Made experienced on the celebrated battle of Marathon. The dramatists had to rehearse their own plays and usually took a part themselves so they had to be proficient not so much as actors but in singing and dancing, for this is how the plays were presented. Aristotelian, when he mocked Aeschylus in The Frogs, had him say that it was he who gave new poses to the chorus, and he is ported as being innovative in making the Nudeness (the Furies) in The Roasters rush disheveled into the orchestra. Sophocles, (chic- BEECH) for his part, was also reported to have been a fine singer and dancer. He added a third actor and limited the size of the chorus to fifteen, which increased the possibilities of conversational exchange. He was said to have introduced scenic decoration and dressed his actors in long-sleeved formal robes. There are seven surviving texts of his plays. These are more about characters such as Oedipus or Made in an overwhelmingly tragic tuitions than the explorations of wider moral dilemmas that Aeschylus wrote. There are nineteen plays by Euripides (chic- BEECH), which are different again from either of the others in his dramatic use of language but the themes of his plays are less powerful and at times almost incomprehensible. The best known are probably The Beach and The Trojan Women. We know less about the Greek comedies because few have survived but scholars have differentiated three kinds. Firstly the Old Comedy encompassed Aristotelian, and whilst it is certain there were others writing in the same style, only his works have survived. The characters in the Old Comedy are grotesques in bawdy, vulgar satire intermixed with buffoonery, but it is a genre especially distinguished by the use of the chorus who speak directly to the audience, a style called the parabolas. In the Middle Comedy chic-BBC there was more direct political reference, no parabolas and more colloquial language. Only fragments of these texts remain but they seem to have been more realistic and more domestic. Then around the time of Alexander, BEECH, the New Comedy appeared, as seen in the fragments of plays by Meander. The grotesques have gone, mythology has gone, the gods appear very rarely, and the masks, if they were still used, were more realistic. About 4000 lines survive from Meander. His plays are realistic in that there are familiar characters from everyday life with more emphasis on their human behavior and on the correction of social manners. Where the Greek dramatists were writing for festival presentation and the kudos that would ensue, the Roman theatre was commercial and the dramatists wrote for money or patronage. Phallus and Terrace adapted Greek originals. It is known that they used the plays of Meander, and others whose work has not survived, from the Greek New Comedy. The Roman writers kept the same kinds of metrical pattern for the dialogue, gave longer lines for chanting and lyric forms for the songs. They kept the Greek costume and masks and the basic types of conventional young men in love, a clever, tricky or sly slave, a pimp, a parasite a dirty old man, etc. At the same time in both Greek and Roman societies there was unliterary comedy. Burlesque farces from Meager in Greece, and influences from Southern Italy and Sicily, in Rome, which seem to have included music, comic songs, mime and dance. This genre was known as Fibula Telltale after the town Tattle. It is believed that the separate art of mime originated with this genre, but it also influenced the taste of the Roman audiences for grotesques and farce. So that there was reversion back to the Old Comedy in the adaptations Phallus and others made of the New Comedy to suit the taste of the Roman public. Phallus (chic-BEECH) certainly wrote for money. He went by the name of Titus Mucus (which meant Buffoon) Phallus (which meant flat-footed) but his original name is unknown. Its thought he was born in Umbra from where he went to Rome and worked as a stage hand and then as an actor, and eventually gained Roman citizenship. He wrote many popular plays, which are the earliest complete Latin literature that we have, and which are more or less in the form in which they were written. His plays were different from run-of-the-mill farces, although he had to broaden the Greek original and added elements from the Telltale farces and in a way ranged back to the style of Aristotelian. It is thought too that masks were used more than they had been in Meanders works. He adds scenes to his sources to allow for more tricks and deceptions, and often has many loose ends, but he has a verbal dexterity and plays with the language, using witty alliteration, assonance and bombast. He gave his audience sentimental realism and farcical burlesque and often mixes spoken colloquial dialogue with the lyrical. His characters have little development and rely upon usual stock types: the comic slave intriguing, blustering, impertinent, irascible old men and available women. There are no surprises; the audience knows what to expect, but Phallus extends theatrical technique by using comic irony more fully than Meander or Aristotelian. He lets his audience in on all the secrets from the beginning and then delights them with the mistakes the characters make because of facts not known to them but known to the audience. His lay Miles Glorious, about Pyrotechnics the Swaggering Soldier, has two plots and many loose ends. Money is usually important in his plays and he often mixes Roman attitudes, events or elements into a play nominally set in Athens, or, as this one, in Ephesus. But Phallus wrote for the masses, and the masses liked it. Terrace, who wrote cobble, was a much more literary writer. He came to Rome as a His master freed him and gave him his name, Eternities Afar. He aimed for the smile rather than the guffaw and his characters were usually the elegant men about Rome, conscious of their manners and annoyed by their elders old fashioned ideas. Although the setting might be elsewhere. For his plays differed from his Greek sources in that the manners and behavior were Roman with Roman attitudes to women and slaves, with lots of sentimental posturing. He used the same repertoire as Meander and the same stylistic conventions but he aims for greater realism and has less flamboyance than Phallus, with what we see as psychological analysis. His prologues also show him more at home with his masters friends, or at least with a more literate and thoughtful audience than Phallus. Perhaps not surprisingly his plays were not very popular with the general public in his lifetime but they have nice become most influential in the development of European drama. Seneca was the other Roman dramatist whose work has come down to us. He was born around BCC in Spain and lived under both Tuberous and Caligula. He offended Claudia and then later became tutor and adviser to Nero. He shows some inconsistencies in his writings and seems to have swayed with the current political wind. His plots are taken from Greek sources but there is no balance in his treatments, they are sensational and rhetorical rather than poetic, bathetic rather than pathetic, with little motivation or development of character. Nevertheless, some academic refuse to dismiss his work out of hand and suggest that he was deliberately writing grotesque parodies even travesties of the Greek models in a philosophical commentary on the sordid world in which he lived. It is thought his plays were not written to be performed but read and perhaps thus able to be more thoughtfully considered than would be the case in performance. Like Terrace he has helped to form later European drama and was particularly influential on the Renaissance dramatists. The term Renaissance is usually attributed to the nineteenth century Swiss art writer Jacob Bureaucrat in his book The Civilization of he Renaissance in Italy of 1860 and people have accepted his definition in hindsight. He set out the idea that there was an almost spontaneous re-birth in interest about the classics, in classical art and literature. But an earlier writer, in the sixteenth century, Giorgio Vassar, often seen as the Medici PR man for artistic affairs, wrote in his The Lives of the Painters, Sculptors and Architects around 1550:- about the rise of the arts to perfection, their decline and their restoration or renaissance. Historians are not agreed that one can set any specific dates for the Renaissance but t is usually agreed that a rural Medieval feudal society gradually changed to an urban mercantile society with more centralized political institutions, a commercial economy and growing lay patronage of the arts and music, sometime around the 14th century in Italy and this spread to rest of Europe through 16th and 17th centuries, and that this was a period of renewed interest in the arts of the classical past. There had been drama before this. There are records of popular comic theatre presented by traveling troupes, and of religious plays and theatrical celebrations at Christian festivals, although many clergy thought plays as such sinful. But much of plays written as a religious didactic tool used Roman forms. The Shimmering nun, Wraiths chic AD, modeled her plays on Terrace, while other religious plays have recognizable language from Latin writers. There were also theatrical representations or kinds of tableaux on a feast day or other special occasion. In Italy these were known as sacred representations and were often given by a confraternity. These used very elaborate staging effects of all kinds long before such settings were used in staging secular entertainments. However the start of an academic classical interest n theatre seems to have begun with the find of a manuscript copy in 1427 of some of the comedies of Terrace and Phallus which led to attempts to present these and other classical plays in what was thought to be the original manner. An Academy was formed in Rome by the scholar Julius Pompons Latest (1425-1498) a leading humanist, specifically to study and present ancient Latin plays, mainly those of Phallus. Oddly the most irreverent and bawdy of the Roman dramatists. Latest was fanatically devoted to what he understood by the customs of ancient Rome and even was said to refuse to learn Greek in case it spoilt his Latin. The Academy was oppressed by Pope Paul II in 1468 for its political aims and pagan spirit and Latest and his companions were imprisoned and tortured. But the interest in classical arts and literature continued and the translations into English of many Latin texts in the sixteenth century brought the plays to England, where the Elizabethan dramatists such as Marathon plundered the plots of Seneca. , or like Johnson tried to emulate his style. T. S Eliot wrote about SÃ ©ances influence on Elizabethan thought and said SÃ ©ances influence upon dramatic form, upon versification, and language, upon sensibility and thought, must in the end be all estimated together. And asserted that when an Elizabethan hero or villain dies, he usually dies in the odor of Seneca by which he seems to mean that, like Seneca, the Elizabethan heroes do not often have an honorable death but include disgrace, violation even dismemberment whether deserved or not. Aristotle taught that tragedy should purge humankind through pity for the protagonist and fear of our own weaknesses, but Seneca and his heirs showed that we are all guilty and we live in a world of cruelty and suffering. The gods could no longer be placated by dramatic ritual and ceremonies as in the origins of drama.